1 The Graduate Center, City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
2 Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, 2900 Bedford Ave, James Hall, 4414, Brooklyn, NY, 11210, USA.
3 Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
4 Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, E1448 Starzl Biomedical, Science Tower, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA.
5 Centro de Investigación en Conducta Y Cognición Comparada, Universidad de Guadalajara, Centro Universitario de La Ciénega, Av. Universidad 1115, Col. Lindavista, Ocotlán, Jalisco, 47820, México.
6 Department of Psychology, Concordia University, CSBN/GRNC, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, H4B 1R6, Canada.
7 The Graduate Center, City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY, 10016, USA. GEsber@brooklyn.cuny.edu. <

A fundamental assumption of learning theories is that the credit assigned to predictive cues is not simply determined by their probability of reinforcement, but by their ability to compete with other cues present during learning. This assumption has guided behavioral and neural science research for decades, and tremendous empirical and theoretical advances have been made identifying the mechanisms of cue competition. However, when learning conditions are not optimal (e.g., when training is massed), cue competition is attenuated. This failure of the learning system exposes the individual's vulnerability to form spurious associations in the real world. Here, we uncover that cue competition in rats can be rescued when conditions are suboptimal provided that the individual has agency over the learning experience. Our findings reveal a new effect of agency over learning on credit assignment among predictive cues, and open new avenues of investigation into the underlying mechanisms.