1 Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
2 Oberkotter Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
3 Hearts for Hearing Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
4 Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
5 Department of Audiology & Speech-Language Pathology, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA.
6 Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Padova, Italy.
7 Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, CT, USA.

Auditory-motor and visual-motor networks are often coupled in daily activities, such as when listening to music and dancing; but these networks are known to be highly malleable as a function of sensory input. Thus, congenital deafness may modify neural activities within the connections between the motor, auditory, and visual cortices. Here, we investigated whether the cortical responses of children with cochlear implants (CI) to a simple and repetitive motor task would differ from that of children with typical hearing (TH) and we sought to understand whether this response related to their language development. Participants were 75 school-aged children, including 50 with CI (with varying language abilities) and 25 controls with TH. We used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to record cortical responses over the whole brain, as children squeezed the back triggers of a joystick that vibrated or not with the squeeze. Motor cortex activity was reflected by an increase in oxygenated hemoglobin concentration (HbO) and a decrease in deoxygenated hemoglobin concentration (HbR) in all children, irrespective of their hearing status. Unexpectedly, the visual cortex (supposedly an irrelevant region) was deactivated in this task, particularly for children with CI who had good language skills when compared to those with CI who had language delays. Presence or absence of vibrotactile feedback made no difference in cortical activation. These findings support the potential of fNIRS to examine cognitive functions related to language in children with CI.