1 Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria; Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada; Biotranslational Research Group, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. Electronic address: olajide.oj@unilorin.edu.ng.
2 Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
3 Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria; Central Research Laboratories Ltd, 132b University Road, Ilorin, Nigeria.
4 Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria; Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.
5 Anatomy Department, School of Basic Medical Sciences,

Despite reports that quinoline antimalarials including chloroquine (Chq) exhibit idiosyncratic neuropsychiatric effects even at low doses, the drug continues to be in widespread use during pregnancy. Surprisingly, very few studies have examined the potential neurotoxic action of Chq exposure at different points of gestation or how this phenomenon may affect neurophysiological well-being in later life. We therefore studied behavior, and the expression of specific genes and neurochemicals modulating crucial neural processes in offspring of rats exposed to prophylactic dose of Chq during different stages of gestation. Pregnant rats were injected 5 mg/kg/day (3 times) of Chq either during early- (first week), mid- (second week), late- (third week), or throughout- (all weeks) gestation, while controls received PBS injection. Behavioral characterization of offspring between postnatal days 15-20 in the open field, Y-maze, elevated plus and elevated zero mazes revealed that Chq evoked anxiogenic responses and perturbed spatial memory in rats, although locomotor activity was generally unaltered. In the prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus and cerebellum of rats prenatally exposed to Chq, RT-qPCR analysis revealed decreased mRNA expression of presynaptic marker synaptophysin, which was accompanied by downregulation of postsynaptic marker PSD95. Synaptic marker PICK1 expression was also downregulated in the hippocampus but was unperturbed in the PFC and cerebellum. In addition to recorded SOD downregulation in cortical and hippocampal lysates, induction of oxidative stress in rats prenatally exposed to Chq was corroborated by lipid peroxidation as evinced by increased MDA levels. Offspring of rats infused with Chq at mid-gestation and weekly treatment throughout gestation were particularly susceptible to neurotoxic changes, especially in the hippocampus. Interestingly, Chq did not cause histopathological changes in any of the brain areas. Taken together, our findings causally link intrauterine exposure to Chq with postnatal behavioral impairment and neurotoxic changes in rats.